Monarchs also had to contend with disorder from below. Urbanization, poverty, and industrialization created volatile social environments in cities. Here, informal groups often emerged—sometimes criminal gangs, sometimes political mobs—that challenged the established order.

Kings and their governments frequently used police forces and armies to suppress such groups, which were seen as threats to social stability. For example, in London, the rise of street gangs during the early 19th century alarmed authorities who feared insurrections and violence. Similarly, in Italy, fragmented monarchies struggled to maintain control over cities rife with unrest.

Urban Gangs: Social Disorder and Political Expression

Origins and Nature of Urban Gangs

The concept of gangs in the 19th century extended beyond simple criminality. Many urban gangs were composed of marginalized youths and adults living in poverty-stricken neighborhoods, often lacking opportunities and education. These groups sometimes engaged in violence, theft, and other illegal activities, but they could also serve as social networks offering protection, identity, and a sense of belonging.

In many European cities, gangs became intertwined with political movements. For instance, in Naples and Palermo, groups known as the Camorra and Mafia began as loosely organized groups that combined criminal enterprise with local political influence. Elsewhere, political radical groups sometimes used gang-like structures to mobilize supporters, intimidate opponents, or participate in street battles. shutdown123